विदेह

 

Gajendra Thakur

A PARALLEL HISTORY OF MITHILA & MAITHILI LITERATURE- PART 22

**Ganga:** Except for the Subarnarekha valley in South Bihar, the rest of Bihar's water drains through the Ganga, so the Ganga becomes very important. Bihar is also not less important for the Ganga. One name of the Ganga is Jahnavi. Near Sultanpur in modern Bhagalpur, there is a temple of Lord Shankar on a hill in the Ganga's current. It is said that sage Jahnu had his hermitage here. When Bhagiratha convinced Ganga to follow him to the hermitage of Kapila Muni to liberate his ancestors, Ganga followed him, and whatever came in her way, she left her mark on it. But now the competition was with sage Jahnu, whose hermitage Ganga was supposed to flow through. Seeing the flow of the Gandak, the sage became angry and drank up the Ganga. Poor Bhagiratha somehow convinced the sage to release Ganga, then he released Ganga from his stomach. Hence the Ganga got the name Jahnavi.

 

The Ganga current originates from the Gangotri Glacier at an altitude of 7,016 meters in the Uttarkashi district of Uttar Pradesh. Originally, this current is called Bhagirathi, which after its confluence with the Alaknanda near Dev Prayag, takes the name Ganga and after flowing about 250 km downstream, descends into the plains near Rishikesh. After that, this river flows through Haridwar, Kanpur, Varanasi, and enters Bihar at a distance of about 155 km. The total length of this current in Uttar Pradesh is about 1450 km, which includes the length of the Bhagirathi from Gangotri to Dev Prayag. The length of this current in Bihar is about 438 km, of which it flows for 110 km forming the border between Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.

 

After leaving Bihar near Rajmahal, the Ganga splits into two parts 40 km east of Farakka, and these two currents get separate names. The left current, which goes east, is called Padma, and the right current named Bhagirathi flows south and, after branching into many currents through Murshidabad, Burdwan, 24 Parganas, Kolkata, meets the Bay of Bengal near Sagar Island. The total length of the Ganga in West Bengal is 520 km.

 

Where there is such a large and such a river, flood is no big deal. In fact, the structure of this region is such that flood and river course change are natural processes.

 

In the Somashwar hill area of West Champaran in North Bihar, due to the low slope of the land and rivers, rainwater does not drain easily and spreads over a large area. When the Ganga's level is high, the water of its tributaries also gets blocked. Due to the spread of water, new soil gets deposited in the fields on one hand, and the fertility of the land becomes refreshed. Sometimes if a severe flood comes, along with crops, a lot of life and property are also lost.

 

To understand this problem of floods in North Bihar, it is necessary to understand the formation process of the Ganga valley and also understand the different conditions of rain and water, called the hydrological cycle. Then one can understand how rivers change their course and then the form of the flood becomes clear.

 

**Formation of the Ganga Valley:** About 33.50 billion years ago, the earth separated from the sun as a sphere of fire. Then, large rocks were falling on its upper surface. Over time, heavy rocks sank into the earth. But the lighter rocks remained on top. The impact of earthquakes on these large rocks and the effect of gases emanating from them started the formation of the atmosphere. Slowly, as the earth cooled further, the water present in the atmosphere as vapor cooled down, turned into rain and snow, fell back onto the land, and due to such events for lakhs of years, the ocean was formed. Thus, the temperature on the earth's surface decreased, but the heat and upheaval inside the earth continued and continue today. Today, the earth's crust is divided into many large, strong pieces, and many countries and continents are settled on them. But until about 300 million years ago, the earth's surface was not divided into such pieces. Until then, all islands or continents existed as one landmass. However, in the last 200 million years, not only have cracks appeared on the earth's surface, but the divided pieces also started moving, which are called plates. The expansion of these plates resulted in the present-day world. This process has not stopped. Even today, these plates keep rubbing against each other. One part climbs over another. So much is happening beneath our earth every moment, which sometimes manifests as an earthquake. According to an estimate, about 10,000 small and large earthquakes are recorded worldwide annually, but among them, the number of earthquakes causing loss of life and property is not more than ten. At the beginning of the 20th century, American scientist Taylor and German scientist Alfred studied the development of the earth and the present form of the continents. The picture of the earth's development that emerged from the research of these two suggests that once the eastern border of South America and the western border of Africa were one. Similarly, the border of northwest Africa matched the border of North America. Australia today was once part of Antarctica. The area below the Vindhya and Rajmahal ranges in India today was once an island-like region in the middle of the South Pole. Geologists call this piece of land the Gondwana land. Over time, the Gondwana land moved northeast towards Asia. Between Asia and the Gondwana land was the Tethys Sea. But about 53 million years ago, the Gondwana land and the Asian mainland collided. The Tethys Sea first shrunk, but later, constant rain on the Asian mainland and the sand and silt that came with it completely filled this sea. Today's Ganga valley is the filled sea between the Asian mainland and the Gondwana land. There is another aspect to this entire story. Scientists believe that when the Asian and Gondwana lands collided, the Rajmahal range of present-day Chotanagpur-Santhal Pargana and the Garo range of the northeastern states were the first to collide. Due to this combination, the path for water flow eastward was blocked. Now, any water that fell to the south of the Asian land or to the north of the Gondwana land all flowed westwards to the sea. Meaning, at that time, the Ganga actually flowed backwards, while the water of the Brahmaputra valley also flowed into the Arabian Sea. But gradually, the entire Gondwana land joined Asia; its west-north side grew more strongly towards Asia, and the Garo and Rajmahal hills separated from each other again. Thus, most of the water drainage started eastwards, and the Ganga was born, which flows from the Himalayas to the Bay of Bengal. The mountains or rocks on the northern border of the Gondwana land, called the Rajmahal range and the Vindhya mountain range, were very old, but the Asian land was only new soft soil. When the pressure of the Gondwana land came on this crumbly soil, it turned into mountains, but these mountains are not of stone; they are made of soft soil, which takes lakhs of years to become rock. The mountains of present-day Nepal and Bhutan are still new, and they also have such slopes and valleys. In such a situation, when rain falls on these mountains along with water, the currents emerging from them carry large amounts of soil and sand. For hundreds of years, the soil and sand flowing down from the northern mountains formed the Ganga valley and its plains. Two things are clear from the various plates of the earth. One is that the pressure of the present-day Indian land is northward on the Asian mainland, and the second is that almost the entire northern part of India is a junction zone of the two plates. Due to the friction of the plates, severe earthquakes occur in this region. The displacement of the earth's mass is a very slow process, which cannot be experienced in a hundred or fifty years. Such changes can be experienced in thousands of years. The formation of the Ganga valley was also such an event. Thousands of years of rainfall and the resulting sediment contributed to the formation of this valley.

 

**Water Cycle:** Rainfall has its own principle. Due to sunlight, water from the ocean evaporates and rises towards the sky. Once high up, due to low temperature, this vapor cools and takes the form of clouds, moving towards the land due to the effect of wind. This water is stored in the clouds as raindrops, hail, or snow and falls to the ground under favorable conditions, becoming the basis of life for living beings. Dew or fog is another form of this water. Some of the water that falls on the ground flows back to the sea through drains and rivers. Some water returns to the atmosphere through activities like transpiration from plants, and some water goes underground, enriching the groundwater level. In fact, this water current exists underground just as we see rivers on the surface. Underground water also maintains its connection with the sea like surface water. Thus, the water cycle from the ocean to the ocean is completed. This entire process is called the water cycle, in which nature transforms the ocean's salty water into useful fresh water. Life on Earth cannot be imagined without fresh water. This continuous journey of water from ocean to ocean never stops.

 

**River Course Change:** In hilly areas, the slope of the land is so steep that water does not stop, but when the river descends from the mountains to the plains, the slope of the land decreases significantly, causing the speed of the water to reduce considerably. The water of the river flowing down from the mountains carries not just water, but also large amounts of trees, rocks, stones, sand, and soil. When the slope of the land decreases, stones do not travel far. But the soil/sand keeps moving with the river water. Due to the decrease in land slope and water velocity, this soil/sand gets a chance to settle on the riverbed. Additionally, when the river breaks its bank and flows, the sand and soil brought with the water spread over the entire area and accumulate. The river thus builds the land. A decrease in the river's speed is observed where it descends from the mountains to the plains, but where this river meets a larger river during floods, the speed of the smaller river often turns into stagnation, because the water of the smaller river flows according to the water level in the larger river. A similar situation arises at the mouth of a river meeting the sea, due to the rising tide in the sea. Due to the cessation of speed, the accumulation of soil/sand accelerates at these two locations, leading to the formation of new land/delta. A 6.5 km wide strip formed at the mouth of the Mississippi River in the US in a hundred years. The Yangtze-Kiang River in China has formed a 48 km wide delta in historical times. The Shok Hwang Ho River in China has formed a delta about 500 km wide since about 5500 BCE. Similarly, the Ganga river has formed a delta over about 250 km before reaching the sea. In most European countries, it rains almost all year round. In our country, there is a rainy season, and about 87 percent of the total annual rainfall occurs between mid-June and mid-October. After the end of the rains and the flood, some sand/soil gets deposited in that area. Due to the flood, a thick layer of sand/soil accumulates in some places, becomes thin in others, gorges form due to erosion, and water accumulates in some places. In the next season, when the floodwater rises again, the soil deposited from the previous year is cut away, forming a new path. Sometimes this new path becomes so large and effective that the river itself bursts onto this new path. The river water that carries a higher amount of sand/soil will have more deposition of sand/soil in its floodplain, and such a river has a greater chance of change. That is why the rivers joining the right bank of the Ganga have less chance of change compared to those joining the left bank, because the rivers joining the right bank come from the plateau and carry less soil/sand, while those joining the left bank come from the soft, fragile Himalayan mountains, bringing large amounts of soil/sand. The changing course of a river with high sediment load is as natural and normal an event as the movement of the earth's plates, rainfall, and delta formation by rivers. Thus, problems like floods, erosion, waterlogging, and river course changes are more severe in the left (northern) part of the Ganga. This problem is more severe where the slope of the land is almost flat. Such locations are found in the Ganga valley in eastern Uttar Pradesh, the plains of North Bihar, and North Bengal. But this does not mean that there is complete peace on the right bank of the Ganga regarding floods. In the plains there, the problem is as much as on the northern bank of the Ganga. The issues arising from floods in the Bhojpur, Rohtas, Patna, Munger, Bhagalpur, and Sahebganj districts of Bihar are proof of that. To the south of this valley are the Vindhya and Satpura mountain ranges, which are part of the Gondwana land. These hills are much older than the Himalayan mountains and have become strong rock. Erosion of soil is less in these hills compared to the Shivalik and Himalayas. However, in terms of area, the northern region of the Ganga is more devastated by floods.

 

**Flood and its Historical Context:** After understanding the process of formation of the Ganga basin, the journey of water from ocean to ocean, and the reasons for river course changes, one thing becomes clear: there is no hope of stopping the displacement of the earth. Rain will continue to fall, and when this water falls on the soil, erosion will occur, rivers will change their course, and floods will keep coming. Humans, with their intellectual skills, can bring about some change in soil erosion, river course change, and floods. Their capacity is not such as of yet. One thing to note here is that North Bihar, or the entire plain of the Ganga valley, is a fertile region, and its fertility has certainly increased due to the silt brought by the river water during floods. Due to being an agriculturally rich region since ancient times, various civilizations developed here. Nature, however, does not distribute only charity. If there is a rose, there is also a thorn. Wherever there is a rich source of fresh water in the form of rain, where the river network spreads over some distance, floods, erosion, and river course changes are more heard of. A river is a powerful means of spreading silt/sand over a large area and reaching the ocean, which, during floods, reaches the sea from its origin. In fact, such land formation is a natural characteristic of a river. This region of the Ganga valley might have been an area of sea sand and salty water at one time. But due to rain, the soft soil of the Himalayas began to flow down from the north, making the land fertile. The land we are talking about is counted among the most fertile lands in the world, and this river is considered the only source of water resources. Apart from materialistic beliefs, the importance of the river for us is like a life-giving force. The foundation of Indian culture has been rivers. So many civilizations have developed on the banks of these rivers since time immemorial and have dissolved into nature's womb over time, but our connection with these rivers has always remained pure and like a mother's love for her devotees. Where Maharishi Ved Vyasa expressed his reverence for rivers in the Mahabharata, he calls them *'Visvasya Matarah'*, meaning mothers of the people. Scholars like Kautilya considered such places unfit for habitation where a beautiful river does not flow continuously. He highlighted the importance of rivers, saying *'Na tatra divasam vaset'* � one should not stay even for a day in such a place. In our auspicious rituals, Indians never forget to invoke rivers along with deities and ancestors. No auspicious ritual of ours is complete without remembering the Ganga, Yamuna, Godavari, Saraswati, Narmada, Sindhu, and Kaveri. To give an example of purity, we recall the Narmada, and we take pride in being called children of the Ganga. The desire to 'obtain the Ganga at death' did not arise only in saints like Kabir because he spent most of his life on the banks of the Ganga. The tradition of calling any river the Ganga out of emotion is still alive in our people. The mention of Lord Shri Krishna would remain incomplete without 'Kālindi kūla kadamb kī ḍāran' (the Kadamb branches on the bank of Kalindi). How many times has Valmiki seen Lord Rama paying respects to the Sarayu? Kshipra gave elegance to Kalidasa's writings. The concept of *Tirtha* (literally meaning the bank of a river) gave expression to the belief in the glory of rivers. We have a distinct tradition of bathing in rivers on such special occasions. Ganga Dussehra, Magh Purnima, Kartik Purnima, Sankranti, etc., there are many such occasions when our ancestors made arrangements to bring people to the riverside. The scriptures had strict directives against discharge etc., to maintain the purity of the river. Bihar's Chhath festival, along with sun worship, is an excellent example of our reverence for the river. A small link in this rich heritage is the Mahananda river, flowing through the eastern districts of North Bihar, Kishanganj, Purnia, and Katihar. In the Mahabharata, there is mention of two rivers, Nanda and Upper Nanda, flowing near the Kaushiki (Kosi) river, where the Pandavas came during their exile. It is believed that the Upper Nanda of the Mahabharata period is the present-day Mahananda. The description of the Mahananda's tributary, Kankai, is also found in the Mahabharata, where it is called Kankananda. Every year, on Magh Purnima day, a fair is held at Durgapur and Kalyan in Katihar district to express reverence for the Mahananda. On this day, a fair is also held on the banks of the Ganga at Kadha Gola in this area.

 

**Mahananda River:** The Mahananda is a major river of North Bihar. Its origin is at Chimle in the Himalayas, 6 km north of Karseong in Darjeeling district, West Bengal, from where it begins its journey of 376 km at an altitude of 2062 meters. After its confluence with the Kankai, the Mahananda crosses the Barhi-Guwahati National Highway 31 near Bagjhora and reaches Bagdob, where its current splits into two parts. The current flowing almost straight south at Bagdob is called the Jhaua branch, and most of the Mahananda's water flow currently passes through this branch. The Jhaua branch itself, as it proceeds further, is joined on its right bank by the Panar river. This branch further crosses the Katihar-Barsoi railway line near Jhaua and the Katihar-Malda railway line near Labha. Another tributary of the Mahananda's Jhaua branch, the Ghasia, joins it below Labha. From here, the Mahananda's Jhaua branch enters West Bengal's Malda district and meets the Ganga river near Surmara. Another branch of the Mahananda at Bagdob, flowing in the south-east direction, crosses the Katihar-Barsoi railway line near Barsoi. Below Barsoi, this current also splits into two parts. Among these, the current flowing east is more active, while the one flowing west has become inactive and has accumulated sand/silt. This current rejoins the main current near Subarnapur. Now this combined current meets the Ganga at Godagiri Ghat in Bangladesh. The total catchment area of the Mahananda is 24,753 square kilometers, of which 5293 square km is in Nepal, 6677 square km in West Bengal, 7957 square km in Bihar, and the rest in Bangladesh. North of Dangra Ghat, the slope of this river's bed is relatively high, which gradually decreases below Dangra Ghat, causing the river's flow capacity to gradually decrease, and the river often overflows its banks. In the lower part, the bed slope of the Jhaua branch is 0.099 meters per kilometer, while that of the Barsoi branch is 0.146 meters per kilometer. According to government reports of the 1960s and earlier, as a result of this lack of slope, there used to be water accumulation for about a week in the lower part of the Mahananda, resulting in the destruction of the then southern part of Purnia (newly formed Katihar). According to these reports, the Mahananda was not the only cause of this destruction in Katihar; the Kari Kosi and Ganga rivers also contributed significantly.

 

A characteristic of the Mahananda's tributaries is that they keep changing their course, and their names also change accordingly. For example, the Panar river has many names like Panar, Parman, Parmaun, Kadwa, Riga, Kankar, Fulhar, or Gangajuri. As the place changes, the river's name also changes. Similarly, the Bakra river's name changes to Bakra, Katua River, or Devani at different places. Many new and old currents of the Kankai are scattered in its catchment area. The situation of the Mechi, Dauk, Ramzan, Kulik, Sudhani, and Nagar rivers is also similar. The currents of these rivers keep splitting, the amount of water flowing in them keeps changing, and their importance keeps increasing or decreasing accordingly. The first survey of this region was conducted in 1779 after the establishment of British rule by a military engineer named James Rennell. The official description of the Mahananda's flow path at that time is found in Rennell's map. Later, Dr. Francis Buchanan Hamilton (1809-10), Robert Montgomery Martin (1838), and Dr. W.W. Hunter (1877) also gave sequential descriptions of this river.

 

It is said about the Mahananda that it is not only the last eastern outpost of Aryan influence, but the history of this region also involves the struggle between invaders coming from the west and the indigenous people. According to the Imperial Gazetteer of India, 'the Mahananda serves as a boundary between the Hindi-speaking region of the west and the Bengali-speaking region of the east.' According to population figures, the Hindi-speaking population is 94.6 percent, while only 5 percent are Bengali-speaking. However, Dr. Grierson's estimate was that about one-third of the people would be Bengali speakers, and this seems correct. The Mahananda also acts as a border line. In Purnia district, two-thirds of the population in the east was Muslim, while in the west it was less than one-third.

 

But without the Kosi, the description of the Mahananda remains incomplete. The Kosi is a very important river of Nepal and Bihar, originating from the main Himalayan range at an altitude of 5400 meters. After traveling about 725 km through Tibet, Nepal, and North Bihar, it merges with the Ganga near Kursela (Katihar). The length of this river in Bihar is 254 km, while its total length in the plains is 307 km. The Kosi river, formed by the confluence of three streams, Surya Kosi, Tama Kosi, and Arun Kosi, has a total catchment area of 58,594 square km, of which 5,704 square km is glacier. Apart from mythological texts, legends, folklore, and folk songs, written information about the Kosi was prepared by the British. Their travelogues and survey reports extensively discussed these rivers, though their main objective was to exploit the natural resources of the region and collect revenue. The travelogues of Francis Buchanan (1909-10) and Robert Montgomery Martin (1838) and Hunter's "Statistical Accounts of Bengal" (1877) contain much written about this river. These records show that the Kosi has long been notorious for changing its channel, the reason being its high sediment load. Based on available records between 1736 and 1955, it is estimated that during this period, this river used to flow east of Purnia, but now it has shifted about 110 km west and flows through Supaul, Madhubani, Saharsa, Khagaria districts and meets the Ganga. Local people say that the Kosi once used to flow through Malda (West Bengal), and according to Buchanan Hamilton, this river may have even flowed east of Malda. Buchanan writes: "Local scholars or pandits living on the banks of the Kosi go so far as to say that in ancient times, the Kosi flowed in the south-east direction up to Tajpur. After which it flowed east and ultimately merged with the Brahmaputra, having no connection with the Ganga. I do not understand what is the basis of this statement, folklore or legend. If it is a legend, it becomes somewhat more believable, but it seems quite possible. It is possible that the large lakes located east and north of Malda were once remnants of the Kosi and Mahananda. ... In the above-mentioned change, at least within the company's territory, no river joins the Kosi on its left bank, but several currents are born from it. Many rivers coming from the northern mountains now join the Mahananda, and it is quite possible that these rivers previously joined the Kosi when its current was in the north-east direction...".

 

Hunter (1877), however, disagreed with Buchanan's view and said, "Dr. Buchanan Hamilton's suggestion that the Kosi might have merged with the Brahmaputra seems less plausible compared to his other theories. It seems that previously the Brahmaputra's course was east of Mymensingh. On its eastward course, the Kosi would have previously met the Karatua, which is itself a river, fed by the Atrai and Teesta. In my Account of District Bogra (Vol. VIII p. 139, 142, 162), I have highlighted its importance based on the size and significance of this river since the beginning of the Hindu era and have said that this river clearly acts as a boundary line for the human race, which is still observable. If it is accepted that the Kosi and Mahananda used to meet at Karatua in the past, then the large size of the Karatua in ancient times can be understood, and then the reason for the sandy plain between the Barind forest of Rajshahi district and Madhupur of Mymensingh can also be understood. The argument about where the Brahmaputra flowed at the beginning of this century would also become clear. In fact, there is not an inch of land between Purnia and Darbhanga where the Kosi's current has never flowed. Its various currents have many names � Saura, Barandi, Kari Kosi, Mara Kosi, Tilave River, Haiyadhar, Bochaha River, Majhari River, Dhemura River, Mirchaiya River, Laguniya River, etc. etc. Whatever current the Kosi's main stream flowed in became the Kosi. Thus, the area between the Kosi and Mahananda has always been an area of floods and erosion, for which the Kosi is largely credited. But as far as the issue of floods is concerned, the noise of the Mahananda is sometimes heard in the noise of the Kosi."

 

Dense forests, inaccessible roads, and the presence of a river at a short distance � perhaps these reasons led the Pandavas to choose this region for their exile, which holds a very important place in mythology. It is said that during the Mahabharata period, this region was under Karna. Kursela, where the Kosi meets the Ganga, fell in the Kaurava kingdom and was then known as Kurushila. At one time, Manihari (Katihar) was originally named Maniharan, where Lord Shri Krishna's ring stone was lost. The Simil forest, where Arjuna hid his weapons during his incognito stay, is present-day Semapur, a railway station on the Katihar-Barauni road. Similarly, there is a legend about Thakurganj town in Kishanganj district that it was part of King Virata's kingdom, and Bhima spent his exile here as a cook (Bhanasiya/Thakur). There are two ponds in this locality named Bhatdhala and Sagdhala, where Bhima used to store rice and greens. Not far from Thakurganj is the place where Bhima killed Keechaka. Compared to leaving this district, the tradition of going outside is notable. People of Purnia avoid working hard in the fields and do not like leaving the district in search of livelihood. Considering the area, the population is low, land is easily available, and labor is less. These are some of the reasons that prevent people from Purnia from going out. Many people come from outside temporarily during the farming season. This was said in 1963. Accidents happen while sitting on train roofs, causing deaths, and such incidents have claimed lives of people from the Kosi-Mahananda doab. Deaths have also occurred due to building collapses and attacks by crocodiles. Between 1963 and 1993, something definitely changed: the people of Purnia, who used to avoid laboring in fields, and those who never liked leaving the district in search of livelihood, were forced to go outside and work in others' fields, paying a price. Whereas earlier, during harvest time and when laborers were needed in Assam's tea gardens, trains from Katihar and beyond used to be crowded with laborers from different parts of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. In fact, if such laborers did not go to Purnia during harvest, the harvest, especially jute, would be almost impossible. This journey from prosperity to misery occurred in the last thirty years. Over the past four decades, the impact of development is becoming clearly visible in this way. How did this Kosi-Mahananda doab suddenly become surplus in terms of labor? One reason is that due to floods in this region, large areas remain submerged for long periods, making farming impossible. However, flood is not the only reason for this, because if there is flood in North Bihar today, there is drought in South Bihar, but the people there are suffering almost similar adverse effects of development as the people of North Bihar. There is no flood there, yet why is this happening? There too, children do not go to school, people are migrating in search of wages. But it is also hard for us to accept that all this is due to population growth. Agriculture is a sector with maximum employment potential. So, if farming can be improved somehow, many people would get connected to the land, and the crowds on train roofs would reduce significantly. Not the Mahananda, but discussion on the Kosi's floods has been ongoing since the latter half of the last century. In other parts of India, the Kosi is cited as an example of a flood-bringing river, and this river remains at the center of any flood discussion. After independence, attempts were made to control this river, and along with it, attempts were made to control rivers across almost the entire Ganga and Brahmaputra valley, and in this sequence, the Mahananda also came into focus.

 

The geographical situation of North Bihar is such that this region is the "playground" for many large rivers (such as � Kosi, Gandak, Bagmati, Mahananda). Approximately 16% of India's total flood-affected area lies solely in Bihar.

 

**Embankments: Protector or Devourer?** The government built 'embankments' (earthen walls) on the banks of rivers to stop floods. But this solution has become more of a problem than a solution: Waterlogging: Due to the embankment, rainwater from outside cannot flow into the river, causing fields to remain submerged for months. Breach of Embankment: When the Kosi embankment (Kushaha) broke on August 18, 2008, it caused severe devastation. When it breaks, the velocity of water becomes many times higher than normal. Rising River Bed: Within the embankments, the river deposits its sediment, causing the river's surface to rise.

 

**Mahananda � The Story:** The author describes the geographical form of the Mahananda river, its origin, and its historical significance in the Mithila/Seemanchal region.

 

**River Origin and Flow:** The Mahananda river originates from the Darjeeling Himalayas at an altitude of about 2100 meters. This river flows through Darjeeling (West Bengal) and the Kishanganj, Purnia, and Katihar districts of Bihar, ultimately merging with the Ganga river.

 

**Network of Tributaries:** The Mahananda's special feature is its tributaries. Among these, the Mechi, Kanakai, Nagar, Tangan, and Punarbhaba are prominent. These rivers bring huge amounts of water and 'silt' from Nepal and Sikkim, making the Mahananda floods more severe.

 

**The 'Imprisoned' Form of the River:** The river was made 'imprisoned' by building embankments. The Mahananda is fickle by nature and has always been changing its course, but modern engineering attempted to confine it to a fixed path.

 

**Impact on Agriculture and Culture:** The life and culture of the people in the Mahananda region are completely dependent on this river. Where this river brought fertile soil, the problem of 'waterlogging' has increased since the construction of embankments. According to the author, the Mahananda is not just a water stream, but the economic backbone of that region.

 

**Beginning of Administrative Neglect:** Compared to the Kosi and Bagmati, the administration always 'ignored' the floods in the Mahananda region, even though the devastation there was no less.

 

**Traditional Flood Management Methods:** People of the Mahananda region were accustomed to living with floods earlier. They built their houses on high platforms and used the fertile soil brought by the floodwater for farming.

 

**The Idea of Embankments and the British Era:** The British rulers thought of building embankments to protect their trade and administrative facilities (railways and roads). However, seeing the geographical situation and network of tributaries of the Mahananda, even British engineers were initially afraid to build embankments. Citing the 1897 'Calcutta Conference', the author says that greater emphasis was placed on drainage rather than embankments at that time.

 

**Influence of the Kosi 'Model':** After independence, when work on embankments on the Kosi river began, its influence also fell on the Mahananda. Due to political pressure and in the name of 'quick relief', the demand to build embankments on the Mahananda also intensified.

 

**Mahananda Embankment Scheme (1960s-70s):** A blueprint for the Mahananda Embankment Scheme was prepared in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Its goal was to embank the river from Kishanganj to Malda (West Bengal).

 

**Technical Dilemma:** There were disagreements among engineers about how successful it would be to confine such a fickle river, which constantly changes its course, within embankments.

 

**Administrative and Political Decision:** According to the author, the decision to build embankments on the Mahananda was more 'political' than technical. The government tried to show the people that it was taking a big step for flood protection, while the long-term consequences (such as silt accumulation) were ignored.

 

**Project Conception:** The Mahananda project was finalized in the late 1960s. Its main objective was to protect 722,000 acres of land in Purnia, Katihar, and Malda districts from floods. The plan aimed to build embankments on both banks of the river and connect several tributaries to the main stream.

 

 

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